Psychology as a science is always evolving, along with the development of
school-mashab and new theories are emerging.The theories that emerge usually a
criticism of previous theories.Indeed, it should be recognized that the point
of view (theory) in psychology nothing is perfect, so as to open opportunities
for scientists to provide input or criticism and refinement of existing
theories.
This time, we will discuss several psychological theories.Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism, Humanistic (Holistic), Gestalt Psychology, Positive Psychology, Transpersonal Psychology and Cross Cultural Psychology (Cross Culture Psychology)
A. Psychoanalysis
One of them figures of psychoanalysis is Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). The original name was Sigismund Freud Scholomo. But since becoming a student of Freud did not want to use that name because the word is formed by Sigismund Sigmund said. Freud was born on May 6, 1856 in Freiberg, Moravia. At that time Moravia was part of Austria-Hungary Empire (now Czechoslovakia). Freud at the age of four were taken to move to Vienna, Austria (Berry, 2001:3). Freud's arrival coincided with the height of the theory of the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin (Hall, 2000:1).
Psychoanalysis began with Freud doubts of medicine. At that time the medicine believed to cure all diseases, including hysteria that is implicated in Vienna (Freud, trans., 1991:4). The influence of Jean-Martin Charcot, French neurologist, which indicate the presence of psychological factors that lead to doubt Freud's hysteria also supports the medicine (Berry, 2001:15). Since then Freud and Josef Breuer doctors investigating the cause of hysteria. Patients who become the subject of inquiry is Anna O. During the investigation, Freud saw ketidakruntutan statement delivered by Anna O. As there is a split of the personality of Anna O.Investigations that Freud brought to the conclusion that the structure of the human psyche: the id, ego, superego and the unconscious, preconscious, and consciousness.
Freud makes this principle to explain everything that happens in humans, among other dreams. According to Freud, dreams are a form of unconscious impulse distribution. Conscious person often represses his desires. Because it can not be channeled in a conscious state, then the desire to actualize themselves during sleep, when a weak ego control.
In Freud's view, all human behavior is both the outward (muscle movement) and hidden (thoughts) is caused by a previous mental events. There are mental events that we are aware and we do not realize but we can access (preconscious) and there we find difficult to bring to the unconscious (unconscious). In this unconscious mental structures which only two are like an iceberg of our personality, namely:
a. Id, is a local psychic energy, which is only thinking of sheer pleasure.
b. Superego, the moral code and contains the social values that the individual is absorbed from the environment.
c. Ego, is the superintendent of reality.
An example is the following: You are assigned a treasurer to manage the money of 1 billion yen in cash. Id say to you: "Take some of that money, yet no one knows". While the ego says: "Check first, lest there be who knows!". While the superego admonished: "Do not do it!".
In the childhood guess is controlled entirely by the id, and at this stage by Freud called primary process thinking. Children will find a replacement if it does not find that to satisfy their needs (the baby will suck his thumb if you do not get a dot for example).
While the ego will be more developed in childhood and in older adults. Here referred to as the secondary stage of thinking process.Humans are able to delay gratification of desire (attitude to opt out of pocket for the wish to save for example). Although it sometimes appears in adults as a primary attitude thnking process, ie satisfying the desire to find a replacement (kicking the trash can because it was irritated from the boss scolded at work for example).
The first process is the so-called EQ (emotional quotient), while the second is the IQ (intelligence quotient) and the third is the SQ (spiritual quotient).
2. Behaviorism
Stream flow is often dikatkan as life sciences, but it does not matter in life. At the end of the 19th century, Ivan Petrovic Pavlov started psychology experiment that reached its peak in 1940-1950's. Here defined as the science and psychology as science only deals with something that can only be seen and observed. While the 'soul' can not be observed, it is not classified into psychology.
This flow of human beings as machines (homo mechanicus) which can be controlled through a pelaziman behavior (conditioning). The desired attitude trained constantly causing maladaptive behavior or deviant behavior. One example is when Pavlov did experiments on a dog. In front of a hungry dog experiments, Pavlov turned on the lights. The dog does not release saliva. Then a piece of meat placed before him and the dog appeared saliva. Furthermore it continues every time the lights came on then the meat is served. So until a few tries, so every time the lights turned on the dog's saliva is rising even though the meat is not served. In this case the saliva of the dog became conditioned response and a conditioned light stimulus.
Similar experiments conducted on a 11-month-old child with a white rat. Each time the child will then hold a white rat dipukullah with an iron bar so hard that it made him surprised. Once the experiment is repeated continuously so that at a certain level then the child would cry so just look at the white rat. Even after that he became afraid of everything that is furry: rabbits, dogs, clothes and furry Santa Claus mask.
This is called pelaziman and to treat it we can do what is called a kontrapelaziman (counterconditioning).
This time, we will discuss several psychological theories.Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism, Humanistic (Holistic), Gestalt Psychology, Positive Psychology, Transpersonal Psychology and Cross Cultural Psychology (Cross Culture Psychology)
A. Psychoanalysis
One of them figures of psychoanalysis is Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). The original name was Sigismund Freud Scholomo. But since becoming a student of Freud did not want to use that name because the word is formed by Sigismund Sigmund said. Freud was born on May 6, 1856 in Freiberg, Moravia. At that time Moravia was part of Austria-Hungary Empire (now Czechoslovakia). Freud at the age of four were taken to move to Vienna, Austria (Berry, 2001:3). Freud's arrival coincided with the height of the theory of the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin (Hall, 2000:1).
Psychoanalysis began with Freud doubts of medicine. At that time the medicine believed to cure all diseases, including hysteria that is implicated in Vienna (Freud, trans., 1991:4). The influence of Jean-Martin Charcot, French neurologist, which indicate the presence of psychological factors that lead to doubt Freud's hysteria also supports the medicine (Berry, 2001:15). Since then Freud and Josef Breuer doctors investigating the cause of hysteria. Patients who become the subject of inquiry is Anna O. During the investigation, Freud saw ketidakruntutan statement delivered by Anna O. As there is a split of the personality of Anna O.Investigations that Freud brought to the conclusion that the structure of the human psyche: the id, ego, superego and the unconscious, preconscious, and consciousness.
Freud makes this principle to explain everything that happens in humans, among other dreams. According to Freud, dreams are a form of unconscious impulse distribution. Conscious person often represses his desires. Because it can not be channeled in a conscious state, then the desire to actualize themselves during sleep, when a weak ego control.
In Freud's view, all human behavior is both the outward (muscle movement) and hidden (thoughts) is caused by a previous mental events. There are mental events that we are aware and we do not realize but we can access (preconscious) and there we find difficult to bring to the unconscious (unconscious). In this unconscious mental structures which only two are like an iceberg of our personality, namely:
a. Id, is a local psychic energy, which is only thinking of sheer pleasure.
b. Superego, the moral code and contains the social values that the individual is absorbed from the environment.
c. Ego, is the superintendent of reality.
An example is the following: You are assigned a treasurer to manage the money of 1 billion yen in cash. Id say to you: "Take some of that money, yet no one knows". While the ego says: "Check first, lest there be who knows!". While the superego admonished: "Do not do it!".
In the childhood guess is controlled entirely by the id, and at this stage by Freud called primary process thinking. Children will find a replacement if it does not find that to satisfy their needs (the baby will suck his thumb if you do not get a dot for example).
While the ego will be more developed in childhood and in older adults. Here referred to as the secondary stage of thinking process.Humans are able to delay gratification of desire (attitude to opt out of pocket for the wish to save for example). Although it sometimes appears in adults as a primary attitude thnking process, ie satisfying the desire to find a replacement (kicking the trash can because it was irritated from the boss scolded at work for example).
The first process is the so-called EQ (emotional quotient), while the second is the IQ (intelligence quotient) and the third is the SQ (spiritual quotient).
2. Behaviorism
Stream flow is often dikatkan as life sciences, but it does not matter in life. At the end of the 19th century, Ivan Petrovic Pavlov started psychology experiment that reached its peak in 1940-1950's. Here defined as the science and psychology as science only deals with something that can only be seen and observed. While the 'soul' can not be observed, it is not classified into psychology.
This flow of human beings as machines (homo mechanicus) which can be controlled through a pelaziman behavior (conditioning). The desired attitude trained constantly causing maladaptive behavior or deviant behavior. One example is when Pavlov did experiments on a dog. In front of a hungry dog experiments, Pavlov turned on the lights. The dog does not release saliva. Then a piece of meat placed before him and the dog appeared saliva. Furthermore it continues every time the lights came on then the meat is served. So until a few tries, so every time the lights turned on the dog's saliva is rising even though the meat is not served. In this case the saliva of the dog became conditioned response and a conditioned light stimulus.
Similar experiments conducted on a 11-month-old child with a white rat. Each time the child will then hold a white rat dipukullah with an iron bar so hard that it made him surprised. Once the experiment is repeated continuously so that at a certain level then the child would cry so just look at the white rat. Even after that he became afraid of everything that is furry: rabbits, dogs, clothes and furry Santa Claus mask.
This is called pelaziman and to treat it we can do what is called a kontrapelaziman (counterconditioning).
3. Humanistic psychologyThis flow appears due to a
reaction to the flow of behaviorism and psychoanalysis. The second stream is
considered degrading human beings into the same class or lower machine. This
flow is called the third school of Psychoanalysis and Behaviorism.One of the
leaders of this genre - Abraham Maslow - criticize Freud on to say that Freud
is only half the soul to study why it's a pain, rather than examining why the
other half lives can stay healthy.One part of the humanistic is logoterapi.
Viktor Frankl was a psychotherapist who developed the technique known as
logotherapy (logos = meaning). This view is principled:a. Life has meaning,
even in the most miserable situation though.b. The main purpose of our life is
to find the meaning of life itself.c. We have the freedom to interpret what we
do and what we experience even in the face of adversity though.Frankl developed
a technique based on the experience of escape from a Nazi concentration camp
during World War II, where he experienced and witnessed the tortures in the
camp. He saw two different things, that the prisoners who are desperate and the
prisoners who have incredible patience and a strong life force. Frankl called
this person the freedom to give meaning to his life.Logoterapi is closely
associated with the SQ, which can be grouped under the following situations:a.
When a person finds themselves (self-discovery). Sa'di (great poet of Iran)
grumbling about having lost a pair of shoes in a mosque in Damascus. But in the
midst of her irritation, she saw that there was a speaker who speaks with a
smile of delight. Then appeared to him that the speaker does not have a pair of
legs. Then he suddenly made aware of, that is why he sadly lost his shoe while
there are people who can still smile despite losing both legs.b. Meaning arises
when a person determine the choice. Life becomes meaningless when one can not
choose. For example: someone who is getting good job offers, with large
salaries and high position, but he had to move from Yogyakarta to Singapore. On
the one hand he gets an abundance of material on the other side but he lost
time to hang out with the kids and wife. He wanted the job, but at the same
time to his family. Until finally he decided to quit the job and choose to have
free time with his family. It was then that he felt the meaning of life.c. When
a person feel special, unique and irreplaceable. For example: an ordinary
people suddenly visited by the president directly at his home. He felt a
tremendous sense of his life and not be replaced by anything. Likewise, when we
find someone who can listen to us attentively, so our lives become
meaningful.d. When we are faced with a responsible attitude. As the example
above, a treasurer is entrusted with the management of cash in a very large
number of his own and had refused to wear some of it to satisfy his desire
alone. At that time the treasurer has tremendous meaning in his life.e. When we
have a situation of transcendence (which brings us to experience the world
beyond the physical, beyond joy and sorrow to us, out of ourselves now).
Transcendence is a spiritual experience that gives meaning to our lives.4.
Gestalt psychologyGestalt psychology originated from the German for describing
the configuration or shape of the piece. A gestalt may be a different object
from the sum of its parts. All the explanations about the parts of the object
will result in loss of gestalt itself. For example, when looking at a rectangle
then this can be understood and explained as a rectangular under its entirety
and its integrity or identity can not be described as four lines that are
perpendicular and connected.Correspondingly, gestalt psychology suggests that
the basic premise of the system conceptualized as a phenomenon of psychological
events organized, and logical whole. This view explains the psychological
integrity of human activity are obvious. According to the gestaltis, at that
time to lose the psychology of identity should be analyzed into components or
parts that have been there before.Gestalt psychology is a movement that
directly challenged the German psychologist Wundt structuralism. The psychology
of action gestaltis inherited the tradition of Brentano, Stumpf and academies
of Wurzburg in Germany, which seeks to develop an alternative psychological
model proposed by reductionistic natural science models and analytics from
Wundt.Gestalt movement is more consistent with the main theme in the German
philosophy of the mental activity of the system Wundt. Gestalt psychology is
based on Kant's theory of thought that says that the organization nativistik
mental activity makes individuals interact with their environment in ways
typical. So the goal is to investigate the organization gestalt psychology of
mental activity and know exactly the characteristics of human-environment
interactions.Until 1930, the movement has managed to replace a model gestalt
psychology wunditian Germany. However, the success of the movement did not last
long because they hitlerisme appearance. So that the movement's leaders to move
to America.Gestalt psychology begins and be developed through the writings of
three important figures, namely Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt
Koffka. All three were educated in an exciting intellectual atmosphere of the
early 20th century in Germany, and all three fled from the pursuit of nazi and
migrated to America.Gestalt psychology in America but did not gain dominance in
Germany. This is because the American psychology has evolved through the period
and the functionalism of the 1930s is dominated by behaviorism. Therefore, the
framework of gestalt psychology is not in line with developments in the United
States.5. Transpersonal PsychologyThe word comes from the word transpersonal
trans meaning beyond and persona means mask. Etymologically, transpersonal
means beyond the visible human image. In other words, transpersonal means
beyond a variety of masks used by humans.According to John Davis, transpersonal
psychology can be defined as the science that links psychology with
spirituality. Transpersonal psychology is one field that integrates
psychological concepts, theories and methods of psychology with the spiritual
riches of diverse cultures and religions. The core concept of transpersonal
psychology is non-duality (nonduality), a knowledge that each part (eg, every
human being) is part of the whole universe. Cosmic unification where everything
is seen as one entity.Transpersonal psychology beginning with the pioneering
studies of health psychology in the 1960's by Abraham Maslow (Kaszaniak, 2002).
Development of transpersonal psychology more rapidly again after the
publication of the Journal of Transpersonal Psychology in 1969, future
disciplines of psychology began to draw attention to the spiritual dimension of
man. Research on spiritual phenomena such as peak experience, mystical
experience, exctasy, keadaran spiritual, transpersonal experience,
actualization and transpersonal experiences were developed. Stream of
psychology that focuses on transpersonal studies calling itself the flow of
transpersonal psychology and self-proclaimed fourth flow after psychoanalysis,
behaviorism, and humanistic. Transpersonal psychology focuses on the forms of
human consciousness, particularly the level of awareness of ASCs (Altered
States of Consciosness). Since 1969, when the Journal of Transpersonal
Psychology published for the first time, Psikology began directing his
attention to the spiritual dimension of man. Research conducted to understand
the spiritual phenomena such as peak experience, mystical experience, ecstasy,
cosmic consciousness, spiritual actualization transpersonal experiences and
spiritual intelligence (Zohar, 2000).Transpersonal psychology flow was
developed by figures such as humanistic psychology: Abraham Maslow, Antony
Sutich, and Charles Tart. So it may be said that the flow is an outgrowth of
the humanistic stream. A definition by Shapiro kekemukakan which is a
combination of opinion about transpersonal psychology: study of transpersonal
psychology that humans possess the highest poitensi, and a dig, understanding,
realization of the unity, spirituality, and transcendence of
consciousness.According to Maslow's peak experience covering religious
experience, plateau, and farthes Reaches of human nature. Hence psychology has
not been perfect before refocusing in a spiritual and transpersonal. Maslow
writes (in the Zohar, 2000). "I should say also that i Consider
Humanistic, Third Force psychology, to be trantitional, a preparation for still
higher Fourth Psychology, a transpersonal, transhuman centered in the cosmos
rather than in human needs and interest, going beyond humanness, identity, self
actualization , and the like ".Transpersonal psychology is more focused on
the spiritual aspects of human beings or transcendental. This is what distinguishes
the human concept of humanistic psychology with transpersonal psychology.
McWaters (in Nusjirwan, 2001) makes a circular diagram in which each circle
represents one level of functioning of the human family and the level of human
consciousness.Each level of the above shows the level of functionality and
level of human consciousness. Circle of 1.2 and 3 respectively represent the
physical aspects, emotional aspects and intellectual aspects of the individual
inner strength. 4 describes the integration circle of circles 1, 2 and 3 that
allow individuals to function harminis on a personal level. The fourth circle
is included in the personal man.The next level included in the category of
transpersonal human. 5 circles represent aspects of intuition. On this aspect
from vague realized that he could perceive without the mediation of the senses
(extra sensory perception). 6 circles represent aspects of psychic energy
(power bathiniah) in which the individual is clearly appreciate him as having
been mentransedir / through sensory awareness and at the same time realizing
integrating itself with the energy fields are larger. The psychological
phenomena can be experienced at the level of awareness. Circle 7 represents the
highest form of appreciation or enlightenment, mystical union, in which a
person mentransendir dualintas and integrates with all that exists. Past the
seventh level mentioned it, saying the level of potential development in which
all levels of internalized simultaneously.The concept of this McWater can
explain how a person achieves the quality of self through meditation methods.
When someone is in the first phase of the long vigil means he is in the
physical world is the knowledge gained from the senses function. An event that
will be empirically dipresepsi directly through auditory, visual or other
sensory organs, or indirectly as in the phenomenon of imagination, an abstract
rational knowledge, knowledge which in part has nothing to do with emotion. If
a person deepen a way to see and observe the sides of the beauty, strength, and
other privileges which have something, then he has moved from the sensory
knowledge into a sense of awe (tadlawuk) which at this stage is the stage of
agitation of feeling, here we see that this stage according to the second stage
of the emotional McWater. At a later stage, with a vigil aktiitas cognitive
delibtkan halted, this is where meditation is very involved in the process of
integrating all three components were physical, and intellectual dmosi.Then if
the result of integrating a person is transcended in God then someone was going
to increase the quality of the personal to the transpersonal. Badri (1989)
exemplifies someone who has been on the transpersonal stages of this
"human awe of the beauty and majesty of creation and the feeling of a
small and contemptible in the middle of the night, he witnessed a nature that
God has given to man to be able to see everything in the heavens and on earth
so that he can find the creator, his terhada solemn feeling, and to worship
Him. Whether out of fear or out of love ". Of expression can be dita see
that someone who recognizes that it is the beauty of God's creation then it
means he has entered the world of transpersonal.
6. Positive PsychologyPsychology that developed
today can be called a negative psychology, because to dwell on the negative
side of human beings. Psychology, therefore, at best, only offer therapy for
psychiatric problems. In fact, humans do not just want to be free of problems,
but also long for happiness. Are there any other kind of psychology to answer
these expectations?Martin Seligman, a psychologist expert optimism studies,
pioneered a revolution in the field of psychology through the Positive
Psychology movement. Contrary to the negative psychology, new science is
directing its attention on the positive side of human beings, developing the
potential strengths and virtues that led to an authentic and sustainable
happiness.In a revolutionary book written by this popular style, Seligman
introduces the basic principles of Positive Psychology, the characteristics of
authentic happiness, and supporting factors. With practical methods that he put
it, you can take advantage of the latest findings of science to measure
happiness and develop happiness in your life.Positive psychology is a new
branch of psychology that aims summarized in 2000 by Martin Seligman and Mihaly
Csikszentmihalyi "We believe that positive psychology of human functioning
will arise that achieve scientific understanding and effective way to build up
develops in individuals, families, and communities. Positive psychology
seek" to find and nurture genius and talent ", and" to make
normal life more fulfilling, "not only to treat mental illness. This
approach has created a lot of interest around the subject, and in 2006 a study
at Harvard University entitled" Positive Psychology "to be half of
the most popular course of the semester.Some Humanistic Psychologist, like
Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Erick Fromm mengembangnak involving theory and
practice of human happiness. More recently a theory developed by these
humanistic psychologists have found empirical support from studies by positive
psychologists, although this study has been widely criticized. This theory is
more focused on satisfaction with filosofismenya source of religious and
humanistic psychology.Psychology is the study of life and human behavior in
everyday life. And so far as we know, the field of psychology has always faced
things that relate to a person's life, such as the cause of the mentally ill,
why people can experience stress, and others. Which is always associated with
one's negative side.But we know that this dive was the name of positive
psychology, which emphasizes what is right / good to someone, than what is
wrong / bad. Previously, psychology is usually always emphasize what is wrong
in humans, such as Questions to stress, depression, anxiety and others.That is
why, there is a new stream in the world of psychology, and call it a positive
psychology. According to Seligman, "Psychology is not just the study of
weakness and damage; psychology also is the study of strength and virtue.
Treatment not only repair the damaged; treatment also means developing what is
best in us. "Mission Seligman is changing the paradigm of psychology, from
psychology pathogenic only human to dwell on the shortcomings of positive
psychology, which focuses on human strengths.Focuses on the handling of various
issues is not new in the world of psychology. From the first, human beings are
always seen as problematic. Since the beginning of the emergence of
psychological flow (mashab behaviorism), viewed as a human being filled with
lots of mechanical problems. Mashab is then seen that there are problems in
humans, not to mention with a view of psychoanalysis mashab memories of the
past as a cause of suffering that exists today. Whatever it is, the psychology
that developed over many years cared more advantages than disadvantages that
exist in humans. That is why psychology is to dwell on the problems often cited
as a negative psychology.Positive psychology associated with the excavation of
positive emotions, like happiness, kindness, humor, love, optimistic, kind, and
so forth. Previously, more psychology discuss the pathological and mental
disorders are also negative emotions such as anger, hate, disgust, jealousy and
so on. In Richard S. Lazarus, noted that positive emotions are usually ignored
or not emphasized, it is not clear why the case. Most likely this is because
negative emotions are much more visible and have a strong influence on the
adaptation and the subjective feeling of comfort than do the positive emotions.
For example, when we are angry, then there is a sense of comfort that
terlampiaskan, feeling superior, and so forth. There was a study saying that
anger is a learned emotion, so he will tend to repeat things that feels
comfortable.Positive psychology is not intended to replace or eliminate pain,
weakness or disorder (mental), but rather to add to or enrich the repertoire,
as well as to understand scientifically about human experience.So basically now
we already know that her name of positive psychology, we should transform
ourselves little by little. As much as we might better spend our positive
emotions than negative emotions we are. Then the result would be positive.7.
Cross-Cultural Psychology (Cross Culture Psychology)The word culture is very
commonly used in everyday language. Most often associated with understanding
the culture of race, nationality or ethnicity. The word culture is also
sometimes associated with art, music, traditions, rituals, or the relics of the
past. As a theoretical and conceptual entity, culture helps to understand how
we behave in a certain group of people and explain the difference. As an
abstract concept, is more than just a label, the culture has its own life, he
continued to change and grow, as a result of encounters with other cultures,
changes in environmental conditions, and sosiodemografis. Culture is a product
guided by individuals who are united in a group. Culture becomes binding and
internalized individuals who are members of a group, either consciously or
unconsciously. In early development, the science of psychology is concerned
with culture. Only after the 50's cultural attention. But only in the 70's to
the culture is really getting attention. At this time it was believed that
culture plays an important role in the psychological aspects of humans.
Therefore, the development of psychology that ignores cultural factors
kebermaknaannya questionable. Triandis (2002) for example, asserted that social
psychology can only be meaningful if done across cultures. It also applies to
branches of other psychology.Exactly how the relationship between psychology
and culture? Simply Triandis (1994) makes a simple framework how the
relationship between culture and social behavior, ecology - the culture -
socialization - personality - behavior. Meanwhile, Berry, Segall, Dasen, &
Poortinga (1999) developed a framework for understanding how a behavioral and
psychological states are formed in different circumstances between cultures.
Ecological conditions of the physical environment, geographical conditions,
climate, and flora and fauna, together with socio-political environment and the
adaptation of biological and cultural adaptations form the basis for behavioral
and psychological character. Thirdly it will then bear the influence of
ecology, genetics, cultural transmission and cultural learning, which together
will give birth to a certain psychological behavior and character.In general,
cross-cultural psychological research carried out cross-country or
cross-ethnic. This means that a country or an ethnic group is treated as a
single culture. From the practical side, it is very useful. Although it also
raises the question, whether a state can be treated as a single cultural group
if in it there are hundreds of ethnic as well as Indonesia? In that position,
the use of the Indonesian national language became the basis for classifying
the whole Indonesian people into a single cultural group. In the end there is
no rigid categories that can be used to perform cultural grouping. Is it
cultural boundaries marked by racial, ethnic, linguistic, or geographical area,
all of them can overlap each other or even less relevant.A definition of
culture in the context of cross-cultural psychology is needed to the same
understanding of what constitutes culture in cross-cultural psychology. Culture
as the set of attitudes, values, belifs, and behaviors shared by a group of
people, but different for each individual, communicated from one generation to
the next (Matsumoto, 1996). Matsumoto definition acceptable because it meets
the definition of all the previous debates; culture as an idea, both of which
appeared as a behavior or ideas such as values and beliefs, as well as
material culture as the product of (massive) and things (Things) who live
(active and serve as a guide for the individual members of the group. In
addition, these definitions describe that culture is a social construct as well
as individual constructs.Cross-cultural psychology is the branch of psychology
that (primarily) concerned with the possibility of testing various frontiers of
knowledge by studying the people of different cultures. In a narrow sense,
cross-cultural research is simply meant to involve partisipasian from different
cultural backgrounds and testing of the possibilities of differences between
the participants.In broad terms, cross-cultural psychology related to the
understanding of what is truth and psychological principles are universal
(applicable to all people in all cultures) or distinctive culture (culture
spscific, applies to certain people in certain cultures) (Matsumoto ,
2004).According Seggal, Dasen, and Poortinga (1990) Cross-cultural psychology
is the scientific study of human behavior and its spread, while taking into
account the established modes of behavior, and are influenced by social forces
and culture. This understanding directs attention to two points, namely the
diversity of human behavior in the world, and the link between individual
behavior to the cultural context, where the behavior occurs. There are several
other definitions (emphasizing some of the complexity), among others:a.
According to Triandis, Malpass, and Davidson (1972) Cross-cultural psychology
includes the study of a subject matter that originates from two or more
cultures, using an equivalent measurement method, to determine the limits that
could be the foundation theory of general psychology and the kinds of
modification theory necessary in order to become universal.b. According to
Brislin, Lonner, and Thorndike, 1973) states that cross-cultural psychology is
the empirical study of members of various cultural groups that have had
different experiences, which can lead to the differences in behavior can be
predicted and significant.c. Triandis (1980) reveals that cross-cultural
psychology struggling with a systematic study of behavior and experience as the
experience that happens in a different culture, which influenced the culture or
the resulting changes in the culture in question.Any definition of each of the
above experts, emphasizes certain characteristics, such as the first, which
highlighted the key idea is to recognize the causal relationship between
culture and behavior. Second, based on the generalized odds (generalizabiliti)
of psychological knowledge adopted. The third is more focused introduction to
the various types of cultural experiences. Kempat, raising the issue of
cultural change and its relationship to individual behavior. Based on the
opinions of the experts above, can be drawn a conclusion that the
cross-cultural psychology is the psychology of attention to cultural factors,
in theory, methods and applications.Sources:Jalaluddin Rakhmat in Danah Zohar,
SQ - Spiritual Intelligence Utilizing the integrative and holistic thinking to
make sense of life, Mizan, Jakarta, 2000.Noesjirwan, Joesoef. Of 2000.
According to the concept of Human Transpersonal Psychology (in Islamic
Psychology Methodology). New York: Library Student.Purwanto, Setyo. , 2004. As
a Means meditation transcendence. (PI lecture material) are not
publishedMisiak, Henryk and Virginia Staudt Sexton, Ph.D. Of 1988. Existential
Phenomenology and Humanistic Psychology: A Historical Survey. Bandung: PT ErescoPurwanto,
Setyo.2004. Out Hank PI: Formulation Methods Islamic Psychology. (Course
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